Post by Eaglehawk on Aug 29, 2019 10:48:15 GMT
New Zealand Pigeon - Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Hemiphaga
Species: Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae (Gmelin, 1789)
The New Zealand pigeon or kereru (Māori: kererū; Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Māori call it kererū in most of the country but kūkupa and kūkū in some parts of the North Island, particularly in Northland. Commonly called wood pigeon, they are distinct from the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) of the Northern Hemisphere, which is a member of a different genus.
The New Zealand pigeon belongs to the family Columbidae, and the subfamily Ptilinopinae, which is found throughout Southeast Asia, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. The members of this subfamily feed largely on fruits, mainly drupes. New Zealand pigeons are members of the pigeon genus Hemiphaga (Bonaparte, 1854), which is endemic to the New Zealand archipelago and Norfolk Island. However recently a Hemiphaga bone was found on Raoul Island. The Chatham pigeon or Chatham Island pigeon (Hemiphaga chathamensis) is traditionally considered a subspecies of the kereru, but is here treated as a separate species.
Description
The New Zealand pigeon is a large, 550–850 grams (19–30 oz), arboreal fruit-pigeon found in forests from Northland to Stewart Island/Rakiura, ranging in habitats from coastal to montane. The general morphology is that of a typical pigeon, in that it has a relatively small head, a straight soft-based bill and loosely attached feathers. It also displays typical pigeon behaviour, which includes drinking by suction, a wing-threat display, hitting with the wing when threatened, a diving display flight, a 'bowing' display, ritualised preening and 'billing' during courtship. New Zealand pigeons build flimsy, shallow, twiggy nests and feed crop milk to hatchlings.
The mainland New Zealand pigeon grows to some 51 centimetres (20 in) in length and 650 grams (23 oz) in weight, compared to 55 centimetres (22 in) and 800 grams (28 oz) for the Chatham Island variant. The head, throat and wings are generally a shiny green-purple colour, but with a bronze tinge to the feathers. The breast is typically white and the bill red with an orange-ish tip. The feet and eyes are red. Juveniles have a similar colouration but are generally paler with dull colours for the beak, eyes and feet and a shorter tail.
The New Zealand pigeons make occasional soft coo sounds (hence the onomatopoeic names), and their wings make a very distinctive "whooshing" sound as they fly. The bird's flight is also distinctive.[9] Birds will often ascend slowly before making impressively steep parabolic dives;[10] it is thought that this behaviour is often associated with nesting, or nest failure.
Taxonomy
As generally accepted, there are three subspecies of New Zealand pigeon; of these, only two survive: H. n. novaseelandiae of mainland New Zealand and H. n. chathamensis of the Chatham Islands. The other subspecies, Norfolk Pigeon (H. n. spadicea) of Norfolk Island, is now extinct. The subspecies differ in their plumage colour and physical morphology.
In 2001, it was proposed that H. n. chathamensis, the Chatham pigeon, was distinct enough to be raised to full species status, H. chathamensis, instead of the traditional subspecies status, H. n. chathamensis. Few authorities outside New Zealand have followed this, with most still considering it a subspecies.
Behaviour
Diet
New Zealand pigeons were once the major dispersers of the seeds of cabbage trees. They eat the small white seeds in autumn and winter.
The New Zealand pigeons are commonly regarded as frugivorous, primarily eating fruits from native trees. They play an important ecological role, as they are the only birds capable of eating the largest native fruits and drupes (those with smallest diameter greater than 1 cm), such as those of the taraire, and thus spreading the seeds intact. While fruit comprises the major part of their diets, the New Zealand pigeon also browses on leaves and buds, especially nitrogen rich foliage during breeding.
One of their favourite leaves to eat is from an introduced plant, the common plum tree. The diet changes seasonally as the availability of fruit changes, and leaves can comprise the major part of the diet at certain times of the year, such as when there is little fruit around.
Breeding
Breeding generally depends on the availability of ripe fruit, which varies seasonally, annually (good years and bad years), and by location. New Zealand pigeons, like other frugivorous pigeons, feed on many species with tropical affinities, including the Lauraceae and Arecaceae, which abound in the essentially subtropical forests of northern New Zealand. They also feed on podocarp species, thought to be relics of the flora of Gondwana, such as miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea) and kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides). In the warmer northern half of the North Island, pigeons can nest all year round, except when moulting between March and May, provided enough fruit is available. Further south fewer subtropical tree species grow and in these areas breeding usually occurs between October (early spring) and April (late summer/early autumn), again depending on fruit availability.
New Zealand pigeons nest in trees, laying a single egg, in a flimsy nest constructed of a few twigs thrown together. The egg is incubated for 28–29 days and the young bird takes another 30–45 days to fledge.[22] In seasons of plentiful fruit the pigeons can successfully nest up to four times.
Distribution and conservation
The population of the New Zealand pigeon declined considerably after the arrival of humans in New Zealand, and this trend continues, especially in the North Island, but they are still relatively common in the west of the South Island and in coastal Otago. They are commonly found in native laurel forests (lowlands in particular), scrub, rural and city gardens and parks.
The introduced Australian common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) and introduced species of rats – mainly the ship or Black Rat (Rattus rattus) but also the kiore or Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) and Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) – have significantly reduced the amount of fruit available for pigeons and other native birds and also prey on eggs and nestlings.
Pigeon populations are also under threat from hunting, habitat degradation and poor reproductive success. Pigeons were very numerous until about the 1860s and large flocks used to congregate in fruiting trees to feed. Restrictions on the shooting of pigeons were enacted as early as 1864, with total protection since 1921, although the enforcement against hunting was not consistent. Some Māori protested, claiming a traditional right to hunt the pigeon.
The bird is protected under the Wildlife Act and there have been prosecutions for shooting it.
Shameless thief or good forest citizen? Weka bring hidden benefits to New Zealand forests
by University of Canterbury
University of Canterbury doctoral candidate Jo Carpenter on Ulva Island, off Rakiura/Stewart Island, holding a weka. Credit: Theo Thompson
Weka are often portrayed as little more than sandwich-stealing scallywags. The large, brown flightless bird's tendency to be curious and gobble any food available (whether it be an unwatched biscuit, penguin egg or endangered gecko) also makes them troublesome for conservationists. However, a new study by University of Canterbury and Department of Conservation researchers has found that these charismatic birds also perform important services for Aotearoa New Zealand forests.
Although birds like the kererū (wood pigeon) tend to get credit for dispersing seeds, it turns out weka are important seed dispersers for some New Zealand plants. They eat the fruits of many plant species, and have a large beak that allows them to also eat fruits that smaller birds can't manage. A new study, published today in Royal Society Open Science, found that weka even disperse some seeds as far as kererū do.
"You might think that because weka are flightless they wouldn't be very good at moving seeds large distances," says lead author Jo Carpenter, a University of Canterbury (UC) Ecology Ph.D. student now based at Manaaki Whenua | Landcare Research. "But it turned out they were dispersing a small proportion of seeds over two kilometres—that's a long way for a seed."
The researchers investigated how far weka moved seeds by attaching GPS transmitters to over 40 birds, then figuring out how long it took seeds to pass through weka. By understanding how long it takes a seed to typically pass through a weka, they could model how far seeds eaten by weka would be travelling. Because some seeds stay inside the birds as long as six weeks, the weka can deposit them far from where they were eaten.
The researchers also made a worrying discovery. Weka near public campsites didn't move seeds as far as those in remote areas. In fact, weka at campsites dispersed seeds 35-40% shorter distances than weka in nearby forests.
"This is an example of what is known as 'cryptic function loss,'" says co-author UC Ecology Professor Dave Kelly, Biological Sciences, who supervised Carpenter's doctoral research thesis titled: Legacy of Loss: Seed Dispersal by Kererū and Flightless Birds in New Zealand.
"It's what happens when an animal is still present in an ecosystem, but due to human impacts it's not providing the ecosystem services that keep everything working properly. We think that weka that spend more time at campsites get more food from people, and therefore don't have to forage as far. That means they disperse seeds shorter distances," Professor Kelly says.
These reduced seed-dispersal distances could affect long-term forest replacement, especially in human-modified landscapes where dispersal maintains genetic diversity across surviving forest patches. This might be a particular problem for large-seeded native trees, like hinau, for which weka are one of the most important seed dispersers.
"This is one of the first studies showing that interaction with people could have a significant effect on the quality of seed dispersal performed by an animal. That's concerning because even our wild places are becoming increasingly crowded with people," says Carpenter.
"So next time you see a weka, think twice before you offer it your lunch!"
More information: Legacy of Loss: Seed Dispersal by Kererū and Flightless Birds in New Zealand: ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/16731
phys.org/news/2019-08-shameless-thief-good-forest-citizen.html
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Genus: Hemiphaga
Species: Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae (Gmelin, 1789)
The New Zealand pigeon or kereru (Māori: kererū; Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae) is a bird endemic to New Zealand. Māori call it kererū in most of the country but kūkupa and kūkū in some parts of the North Island, particularly in Northland. Commonly called wood pigeon, they are distinct from the wood pigeon (Columba palumbus) of the Northern Hemisphere, which is a member of a different genus.
The New Zealand pigeon belongs to the family Columbidae, and the subfamily Ptilinopinae, which is found throughout Southeast Asia, Malaya, Australia and New Zealand. The members of this subfamily feed largely on fruits, mainly drupes. New Zealand pigeons are members of the pigeon genus Hemiphaga (Bonaparte, 1854), which is endemic to the New Zealand archipelago and Norfolk Island. However recently a Hemiphaga bone was found on Raoul Island. The Chatham pigeon or Chatham Island pigeon (Hemiphaga chathamensis) is traditionally considered a subspecies of the kereru, but is here treated as a separate species.
Description
The New Zealand pigeon is a large, 550–850 grams (19–30 oz), arboreal fruit-pigeon found in forests from Northland to Stewart Island/Rakiura, ranging in habitats from coastal to montane. The general morphology is that of a typical pigeon, in that it has a relatively small head, a straight soft-based bill and loosely attached feathers. It also displays typical pigeon behaviour, which includes drinking by suction, a wing-threat display, hitting with the wing when threatened, a diving display flight, a 'bowing' display, ritualised preening and 'billing' during courtship. New Zealand pigeons build flimsy, shallow, twiggy nests and feed crop milk to hatchlings.
The mainland New Zealand pigeon grows to some 51 centimetres (20 in) in length and 650 grams (23 oz) in weight, compared to 55 centimetres (22 in) and 800 grams (28 oz) for the Chatham Island variant. The head, throat and wings are generally a shiny green-purple colour, but with a bronze tinge to the feathers. The breast is typically white and the bill red with an orange-ish tip. The feet and eyes are red. Juveniles have a similar colouration but are generally paler with dull colours for the beak, eyes and feet and a shorter tail.
The New Zealand pigeons make occasional soft coo sounds (hence the onomatopoeic names), and their wings make a very distinctive "whooshing" sound as they fly. The bird's flight is also distinctive.[9] Birds will often ascend slowly before making impressively steep parabolic dives;[10] it is thought that this behaviour is often associated with nesting, or nest failure.
Taxonomy
As generally accepted, there are three subspecies of New Zealand pigeon; of these, only two survive: H. n. novaseelandiae of mainland New Zealand and H. n. chathamensis of the Chatham Islands. The other subspecies, Norfolk Pigeon (H. n. spadicea) of Norfolk Island, is now extinct. The subspecies differ in their plumage colour and physical morphology.
In 2001, it was proposed that H. n. chathamensis, the Chatham pigeon, was distinct enough to be raised to full species status, H. chathamensis, instead of the traditional subspecies status, H. n. chathamensis. Few authorities outside New Zealand have followed this, with most still considering it a subspecies.
Behaviour
Diet
New Zealand pigeons were once the major dispersers of the seeds of cabbage trees. They eat the small white seeds in autumn and winter.
The New Zealand pigeons are commonly regarded as frugivorous, primarily eating fruits from native trees. They play an important ecological role, as they are the only birds capable of eating the largest native fruits and drupes (those with smallest diameter greater than 1 cm), such as those of the taraire, and thus spreading the seeds intact. While fruit comprises the major part of their diets, the New Zealand pigeon also browses on leaves and buds, especially nitrogen rich foliage during breeding.
One of their favourite leaves to eat is from an introduced plant, the common plum tree. The diet changes seasonally as the availability of fruit changes, and leaves can comprise the major part of the diet at certain times of the year, such as when there is little fruit around.
Breeding
Breeding generally depends on the availability of ripe fruit, which varies seasonally, annually (good years and bad years), and by location. New Zealand pigeons, like other frugivorous pigeons, feed on many species with tropical affinities, including the Lauraceae and Arecaceae, which abound in the essentially subtropical forests of northern New Zealand. They also feed on podocarp species, thought to be relics of the flora of Gondwana, such as miro (Prumnopitys ferruginea) and kahikatea (Dacrycarpus dacrydioides). In the warmer northern half of the North Island, pigeons can nest all year round, except when moulting between March and May, provided enough fruit is available. Further south fewer subtropical tree species grow and in these areas breeding usually occurs between October (early spring) and April (late summer/early autumn), again depending on fruit availability.
New Zealand pigeons nest in trees, laying a single egg, in a flimsy nest constructed of a few twigs thrown together. The egg is incubated for 28–29 days and the young bird takes another 30–45 days to fledge.[22] In seasons of plentiful fruit the pigeons can successfully nest up to four times.
Distribution and conservation
The population of the New Zealand pigeon declined considerably after the arrival of humans in New Zealand, and this trend continues, especially in the North Island, but they are still relatively common in the west of the South Island and in coastal Otago. They are commonly found in native laurel forests (lowlands in particular), scrub, rural and city gardens and parks.
The introduced Australian common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) and introduced species of rats – mainly the ship or Black Rat (Rattus rattus) but also the kiore or Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans) and Brown Rat (Rattus norvegicus) – have significantly reduced the amount of fruit available for pigeons and other native birds and also prey on eggs and nestlings.
Pigeon populations are also under threat from hunting, habitat degradation and poor reproductive success. Pigeons were very numerous until about the 1860s and large flocks used to congregate in fruiting trees to feed. Restrictions on the shooting of pigeons were enacted as early as 1864, with total protection since 1921, although the enforcement against hunting was not consistent. Some Māori protested, claiming a traditional right to hunt the pigeon.
The bird is protected under the Wildlife Act and there have been prosecutions for shooting it.
Shameless thief or good forest citizen? Weka bring hidden benefits to New Zealand forests
by University of Canterbury
University of Canterbury doctoral candidate Jo Carpenter on Ulva Island, off Rakiura/Stewart Island, holding a weka. Credit: Theo Thompson
Weka are often portrayed as little more than sandwich-stealing scallywags. The large, brown flightless bird's tendency to be curious and gobble any food available (whether it be an unwatched biscuit, penguin egg or endangered gecko) also makes them troublesome for conservationists. However, a new study by University of Canterbury and Department of Conservation researchers has found that these charismatic birds also perform important services for Aotearoa New Zealand forests.
Although birds like the kererū (wood pigeon) tend to get credit for dispersing seeds, it turns out weka are important seed dispersers for some New Zealand plants. They eat the fruits of many plant species, and have a large beak that allows them to also eat fruits that smaller birds can't manage. A new study, published today in Royal Society Open Science, found that weka even disperse some seeds as far as kererū do.
"You might think that because weka are flightless they wouldn't be very good at moving seeds large distances," says lead author Jo Carpenter, a University of Canterbury (UC) Ecology Ph.D. student now based at Manaaki Whenua | Landcare Research. "But it turned out they were dispersing a small proportion of seeds over two kilometres—that's a long way for a seed."
The researchers investigated how far weka moved seeds by attaching GPS transmitters to over 40 birds, then figuring out how long it took seeds to pass through weka. By understanding how long it takes a seed to typically pass through a weka, they could model how far seeds eaten by weka would be travelling. Because some seeds stay inside the birds as long as six weeks, the weka can deposit them far from where they were eaten.
The researchers also made a worrying discovery. Weka near public campsites didn't move seeds as far as those in remote areas. In fact, weka at campsites dispersed seeds 35-40% shorter distances than weka in nearby forests.
"This is an example of what is known as 'cryptic function loss,'" says co-author UC Ecology Professor Dave Kelly, Biological Sciences, who supervised Carpenter's doctoral research thesis titled: Legacy of Loss: Seed Dispersal by Kererū and Flightless Birds in New Zealand.
"It's what happens when an animal is still present in an ecosystem, but due to human impacts it's not providing the ecosystem services that keep everything working properly. We think that weka that spend more time at campsites get more food from people, and therefore don't have to forage as far. That means they disperse seeds shorter distances," Professor Kelly says.
These reduced seed-dispersal distances could affect long-term forest replacement, especially in human-modified landscapes where dispersal maintains genetic diversity across surviving forest patches. This might be a particular problem for large-seeded native trees, like hinau, for which weka are one of the most important seed dispersers.
"This is one of the first studies showing that interaction with people could have a significant effect on the quality of seed dispersal performed by an animal. That's concerning because even our wild places are becoming increasingly crowded with people," says Carpenter.
"So next time you see a weka, think twice before you offer it your lunch!"
More information: Legacy of Loss: Seed Dispersal by Kererū and Flightless Birds in New Zealand: ir.canterbury.ac.nz/handle/10092/16731
phys.org/news/2019-08-shameless-thief-good-forest-citizen.html